Make It Stick Book Summary
The Science of Successful Learning
Book by Peter Brown, Henry Roediger, Mark McDaniel
Summary
Make It Stick offers powerful, evidence-based strategies for deeper, more durable learning - spacing, retrieval, interleaving, elaboration, generation, and reflection - that challenge conventional study habits and unlock our full learning potential.
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The Illusions of Knowing
Many common study habits turn out to be counterproductive. Highlighting, underlining, and rereading textbooks feels productive, but these methods create an illusion of mastery. In reality, they lead to shallow learning that fades quickly. Similarly, cramming for exams often produces better short-term recall but poorer long-term retention compared to spaced practice. We are poor judges of when we are learning well, so becoming adept at self-quizzing is key to calibrating our understanding and breaking these illusions of knowing.
Section: 1, Chapter: 1
The Learning Power of Generation
Having to generate an answer or solution to a problem rather than being presented with it leads to stronger learning and retention, even when the generated answer is wrong. Generation can take many forms, such as trying to solve a problem before being shown the solution, writing your own summary of a text after reading it, or mapping out a chapter from memory. The effort to bring knowledge to mind strengthens the memory trace and creates more versatile connections to what you already know.
Section: 1, Chapter: 1
The Testing Effect
Retrieval practice, such as quizzing yourself on what you've learned, is a powerful learning strategy. Retrieving knowledge from memory strengthens the memory trace and interrupts forgetting. Testing also helps you identify gaps in your understanding for further study. To apply this:
- Incorporate frequent low-stakes quizzes into your study routine
- Create flashcards to test your memory of key concepts, not just facts
- After each class or reading, write down the central ideas from memory
- Test yourself again on old material to keep it fresh
Section: 1, Chapter: 2
This concept is also discussed in:
A Mind For Numbers
Reflection as Practice
After a challenging surgery, the neurosurgeon Mike Ebersold reflects on what could have gone better:
"A lot of times something would come up in surgery that I had difficulty with, and then I'd go home that night thinking about what happened and what could I do, for example, to improve the way a suturing went. How can I take a bigger bite with my needle, or a smaller bite, or should the stitches be closer together? What if I modified it this way or that way? Then the next day back, I'd try that and see if it worked better."
This mental rehearsal is a potent form of retrieval practice. By imagining alternatives and connecting them to his previous knowledge, Dr. Ebersold is expanding his mental models. Reflection works memory traces from different angles, strengthening mastery and preparing him to handle future variations.
Section: 1, Chapter: 2
Spaced Practice Beats Cramming
In a study of surgical residents learning microsurgery skills, one group crammed their training into a single intensive session, while another group had the same training spread out in smaller sessions over multiple weeks. When tested a month later, the residents who had spaced out their practice significantly outperformed those who had crammed. Some of the crammers even permanently damaged the nerves of the rats they were operating on due to lack of skill.
Section: 1, Chapter: 3
The Myth of Massed Practice
Massed practice (cramming, single-mindedly focusing on one skill at a time) feels more productive than spaced, interleaved, or varied practice, but that feeling is deceptive. Massed practice produces quick gains that also fade quickly. In contrast:
- Spaced practice: Spacing out study of the same material over time
- Interleaved practice: Mixing practice of different but related skills
- Varied practice: Introducing variation into how you practice a skill
These methods are more effortful and feel less productive in the moment but lead to more durable, flexible learning. The effort required to retrieve the learning after a little forgetting has set in is what builds habit strength.
Section: 1, Chapter: 3
Mastery Requires Struggle
"When you space out practice at a task and get a little rusty between sessions, or you interleave the practice of two or more subjects, retrieval is harder and feels less productive, but the effort produces longer lasting learning and enables more versatile application of it in later settings."
Section: 1, Chapter: 3
Embrace Difficulties For Stronger Learning
Learning that is easy often doesn't stick. Difficulties that feel counterproductive, like spacing out practice, interleaving different topics, varying practice, and generation, actually lead to stronger long-term learning. The increased effort required to retrieve the learning after a lapse or to apply it in varied contexts strengthens memory traces and builds mental models that are more versatile for later application. Effective learning strategies tend to be more effortful than unproductive ones.
Section: 1, Chapter: 4
Jump In, Make Mistakes, Learn
Mia Blundetto, a US Marine Corps officer, had to learn parachute training on the job to lead a platoon in parachute operations. The training was difficult and sometimes scary. On one jump, Mia collided with another jumper, their parachutes tangling. Mia relates: "I realized that I was on top of the first jumper, so I just sort of swam out of his parachute and steered away from him."
Jumping out of an airplane is an extreme example, but learning by doing, even imperfectly at first, is often more effective than trying to perfectly prepare through bookwork alone. Mia's training gave her the skills to operate under pressure and adapt to difficulties. Getting into the field, making mistakes, and learning from them is often the fastest route to competence.
Section: 1, Chapter: 4
Desirable Difficulties
Introducing difficulties into learning helps long-term retention and transfer. Some desirable difficulties are:
- Generation: Trying to solve a problem before being shown the solution
- Reflection: Reviewing what went well and what could be improved after a practice attempt
- Spacing: Distributing practice over time, allowing some forgetting between sessions
- Interleaving: Mixing up practice of different but related skills or topics
- Variation: Practicing the same skill in different contexts or variations
These difficulties feel less productive than straightforward studying or repetitive practice, but they are more effective at building durable, flexible knowledge and skills.
Section: 1, Chapter: 4
The Curse of Knowledge
As we develop greater expertise in an area, we lose awareness of what it's like to be a novice. This "curse of knowledge" can lead teachers to omit explanations of key concepts that they now take for granted. It can cause us to overestimate how well we have communicated an idea and underestimate how much exposure a learner needs to master a skill. Recognizing and compensating for this expert blind spot is essential for effective teaching and knowledge sharing.
Section: 1, Chapter: 5
Illusions of Competence
We often have a false sense of how much we know and how effectively we will perform. Some common illusions include:
- Fluency illusions: Mistaking ease of reading for mastery of the content
- Familiarity illusions: Confusing recognition of a concept with understanding of it
- Rereading illusions: Believing that multiple passive exposures equate to learning
To avoid these illusions:
- Test yourself frequently, especially on material you believe you know well
- Summarize key ideas in your own words without looking at the source material
- Ask yourself questions that probe your understanding, not just your memory
- Calibrate your sense of what you know against objective feedback like quizzes
Section: 1, Chapter: 5
One Learning Style To Rule Them All?
The theory that individuals have different "learning styles" (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, etc.) and learn best when instruction matches their style is popular but unsupported by empirical evidence. While people have learning preferences, catering to these preferences doesn't appear to enhance learning. A better approach is to adopt proven study strategies like retrieval practice, spacing, interleaving, and generation, and to match instruction to the nature of the material being learned (e.g., visual aids for geography, hands-on practice for motor skills).
Section: 1, Chapter: 6
Successful Intelligence
Psychologist Robert Sternberg proposed that there are three types of intelligence:
- Analytical intelligence: The ability to solve problems, think critically, and analyze ideas (similar to traditional IQ)
- Creative intelligence: The ability to generate novel ideas and adapt to new situations
- Practical intelligence: The ability to navigate real-world situations effectively (i.e., "street smarts")
Successful learning and performance require all three. Traditional education tends to focus heavily on analytical intelligence at the expense of creative and practical intelligence. A more balanced approach is to provide opportunities to develop all three through problem-solving, open-ended assignments, real-world applications, and reflection.
Section: 1, Chapter: 6
Structure Building For Comprehension
Structure building is the process of extracting key ideas from information and organizing them into a coherent mental framework. Some students naturally focus on the high-level structure of what they're learning, while others get caught up in disconnected details. In one study, students read a passage on car brakes:
"Poor structure builders tended to recall small, isolated, and sometimes unimportant details about the passage ('the brakes were made of a ceramic material'). Good structure builders were able to provide a more organized and meaningful summary ('brakes transfer the kinetic energy of the car into heat energy, which is dissipated by the ceramic materials, slowing the car down')."
Instructors can help students build better structures by providing advance organizers, outlines, and guiding questions that highlight the key points and relationships. Students can help themselves by looking for main ideas, making concept maps, and explaining the material in their own words.
Section: 1, Chapter: 6
Increasing Your Intellectual Abilities
Many people believe that intelligence is fixed, but research shows that it can be increased through effective learning strategies and dedicated practice. Engaging in activities that are challenging, require focused attention, and involve feedback and reflection can lead to growth in knowledge and skills. This growth mindset, the belief that abilities can be developed, is associated with greater motivation, effort, and resilience in the face of setbacks. Adopting this mindset and engaging in deliberate practice are key to expanding intellectual abilities.
Section: 1, Chapter: 7
The Power of a Growth Mindset
In a study by psychologist Carol Dweck, seventh-grade students were taught about the brain's ability to grow and change through learning. They learned that intelligence is not fixed but can be developed through effort and practice. Compared to a control group that received only study skills training, the growth mindset group showed significant improvements in motivation and math grades over the course of the year.
They were more likely to see difficult problems as opportunities to learn rather than threats to their self-image. This simple shift in mindset led to measurable changes in academic performance.
Section: 1, Chapter: 7
Deliberate Practice For Expert Performance
Deliberate practice is a specific form of training that is key to developing expertise in any field. It involves:
- Working on well-defined, specific goals at the edge of one's ability
- Receiving immediate, informative feedback
- Ample time for repetition and gradual refinement
- Intense focus and concentration, often alone
- Reflection and modification of efforts in response to feedback
Deliberate practice is not the same as rote repetition. It requires getting out of one's comfort zone, constantly striving to improve, and actively analyzing and addressing weaknesses. While it is not always enjoyable, it is essential for breaking through plateaus and achieving elite levels of performance.
Section: 1, Chapter: 7
Making Practice a Habit
Establishing a regular habit of practice is crucial for mastering any skill. Some tips for making practice a habit:
- Set a specific, regular time for practice in your schedule
- Start small, with sessions as short as 10-15 minutes, and build up gradually
- Remove distractions and temptations during practice time
- Practice in the same place each day to build associations
- Track your practice sessions to create a sense of progress and accountability
- Celebrate small wins and milestones along the way
Section: 1, Chapter: 7
Mnemonic Devices As Learning Tools
Mnemonic devices are memory aids that help organize and recall information by making it more meaningful, structured, or accessible. Common mnemonic techniques include:
- Imagery: Creating vivid mental pictures associated with the material
- Acronyms: Forming a memorable word from the first letters of a list
- Rhymes and songs: Setting information to a familiar melody or rhythm
- Method of loci: Visualizing items to be remembered in specific locations
While mnemonics are not a substitute for understanding, they can be powerful tools for memorizing large amounts of factual information such as medical terminology, foreign language vocabulary, or historical dates.
Section: 1, Chapter: 7
Spaced Practice For Lifelong Learning
Nathaniel Fuller, an actor with the Oregon Shakespeare Festival, uses spaced practice to memorize his lines. He breaks his script down into small, manageable chunks and practices them over time, rather than trying to cram all at once. He starts by reading a scene and highlighting his lines. Then he covers the page and tries to recite his lines from memory. If he makes a mistake, he uncovers the script, re-reads the line, and tries again. He repeats this process until he can recite the scene fluently.
Fuller spaces out his practice sessions over days and weeks, allowing time for forgetting and retrieval. This approach not only helps him memorize his lines more effectively but also deepens his understanding of the character and the play.
Section: 1, Chapter: 8
Generation for Deeper Understanding
Generation, or actively attempting to solve a problem or answer a question before being shown the solution, is a powerful learning strategy. Some ways to incorporate generation into your learning:
- When reading a textbook, pause at the end of each section and try to summarize the key points from memory before moving on
- After attending a lecture or workshop, write down the main takeaways and action steps without consulting your notes
- When working on a math or science problem, try to solve it on your own before looking at the solution or asking for help
- Engage in reciprocal teaching by taking turns with a study partner to explain concepts to each other and ask clarifying questions
Section: 1, Chapter: 8